How and in what ways are race,age and gender important factors for Essay

How and in what ways are race,age and gender important factors for understanding the development and operation of the criminal justice system in England and wal - Essay Example In this context, race, age and gender become important because while a prisoner is certainly placed under boundaries of law, s/he does not stop being a human being and it must be noted that s/he has the same right to be treated humanely and with as much importance as those who are not with him/her in prison. The treatments and the rights are controlled by those who are supposed to manage Her Majesty’s prisons and even though things such as the Human Rights Act 1998 and the European Convention on Human Rights have improved the conditions for many prisoners, there is still a lot more which can be done (Valette, 2002). This is certainly recognised in the corporate objectives outlined by the UK Prison Service but it must also be noted that the external environment of the world at large and the UK in particular is changing rapidly and in the next ten to fifteen years significant alterations can be expected (Beckford, 2005). In this context, gender and age become particularly important since recent research has shown us that young males in prisons are particularly likely to commit suicide while they are in prison. While there is no method by which we can know exactly why a prisoner might kill him/herself we are told by the Royal College of Psychiatrists that there are certain risk factors associated with individuals who have previously committed suicide in prisons (RCP, 2005). Unsurprisingly, these factors are: The lack of support from the prison authorities can have several influences which push a prisoner on the brink to committing suicide. For instance, if a prisoner is seen as being at risk for suicide the need for a constructive relation between the prison authorities and the prisoner is strongly recommended. In fact, positive relationships are the most important means for preventing prison suicides as is a programme

Evaluation of the concept of childhood based on a range of theoretical Essay

Evaluation of the concept of childhood based on a range of theoretical perspectives - Essay Example The qualities of purity, innocence, delight, faith, hope, charity and magnificence are attributed to a child—traits that people seem to lose upon reaching adulthood. To better comprehend the concept of a child, the different perceptions associated with a child should be further tackled and scrutinized. Traditionally, a child has been defined as a comparative negative: a child is an individual who is not yet an adult (Van Bueren 1998) or an individual embodied being that is not an adult (Gittins 1998). However, the child is a transitory being that is constantly changing, growing and developing (Gittins 1998). During the time of Plato and Aristotle, about half a century before the birth of Christ, the classical Athenian attitude towards children saw them as simply cute, not to be taken too seriously, but to be loved and enjoyed (Frost 2010). Biologically, the child is defined as a human between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of a child, on the contrary, im plies that the child refers to a minor, younger than the age of maturity. Moreover, a child may be defined as someone who is under 18 years old especially when it comes to the law. For Pufall and Unsworth (2004), the child is an age-related concept which is the classificatory label given to the category of people who inhabit that temporal space or time of life called childhood. On the other hand, Gittins (1998) also pointed out that the child and the concept of childhood is a myth, a fiction, an adult construction. However, both have become symbolically central to our culture and psychologically crucial to our sense of self. Gittins (1998) further adds that the child exists in imagery that pervades our conscious and even in our unconscious minds; it is evident that images of a child are everywhere. Childhood, on the contrary, is believed to begin from the moment of conception (Van Bueren 1998). Pufall and Unsworth (2004) stressed that the term childhood embraces the temporality of t he developmental aspects of children’s lives. Gittins (1998) emphasized that individuals’ memories of their own childhoods inform their ideas regarding who they think they are, who they think they once were, what they believe children are and therefore, what they believe a child and the concept of childhood should be. Mash and Wolfe (2010) recognize children as persons with a value independent of any other purpose. Each and every person consequently carries their own, usually well-hidden and frequently denied, emotional and irrational baggage relating to their own subjective experiences of having once been a child (Gittins 1998). On the contrary, according to Kozier et al (2004) if a child grew up in a family whose members appreciate, respect and cherish each other are likely to feel good about himself when he becomes an adult. Childhood, however, has its pessimistic views and disapproving constructions. One example is the Puritan Discourse of childhood that focuses on the belief of inherent wickedness (Kassem 2010). Kassem (2010) further suggests that the proponents of this view hold a construction of childhood as uncivilized. The idea of childhood is also reflected on two discourses that strengthen contemporary understandings of childhood: the Romantic discourse or the optimistic view of childhood and the discourse of tabula rasa or blank slate. Kehily (2004) cited that the Romantic disc

Data Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Data Analysis - Assignment Example Using the Sharpe ratio, the mutual funds for FLCSX are still the best when comparing the risk and return for the investment. JFMAX is the stock that has been greatly diversified. This is because it sells in many countries in different countries. That will ensure that the risk of loss is reduced because it will be subject to a few issues and hence it will have a high probability of doing good as compared to the other investments. Beta is a measure of the volatility of an investment towards market forces. That measures the rate at which an investment is affected by changes in the market. An investment that has a beta greater than one is very volatile to market forces and it is affected highly by market forces. That ,means that they are relatively risky and usually associated with high risk and returns. For investments that have a bet lower than one, they are less risk and also associated with lower rates of returns. From the 1990’s, china has become a huge player in the industrial area. This is because the country has emerged as a super power in business. The country has been giving stiff competition to the prior year super powers that included the united states. That made the country a super power in businesses. The other thing that made china develop tremendously was its ability to come up with new products that could be sold in different countries at a lower cost. China also took advantage of FDI. FDI is a system whereby a country or business relocates to regions where there is availability of low cost goods or labor. That ensures that the cost to the company are low and the company is able to supply the products to the target market. That means that the availability of cheap labor and raw products will make the supply and production of goods relatively cheaper. China also takes advantage of the countries whereby there is a huge target market. In that case, the target market becomes l arge and it is able to make more profits as compared to

Evaluation of the concept of childhood based on a range of theoretical Essay

Evaluation of the concept of childhood based on a range of theoretical perspectives - Essay Example The qualities of purity, innocence, delight, faith, hope, charity and magnificence are attributed to a child—traits that people seem to lose upon reaching adulthood. To better comprehend the concept of a child, the different perceptions associated with a child should be further tackled and scrutinized. Traditionally, a child has been defined as a comparative negative: a child is an individual who is not yet an adult (Van Bueren 1998) or an individual embodied being that is not an adult (Gittins 1998). However, the child is a transitory being that is constantly changing, growing and developing (Gittins 1998). During the time of Plato and Aristotle, about half a century before the birth of Christ, the classical Athenian attitude towards children saw them as simply cute, not to be taken too seriously, but to be loved and enjoyed (Frost 2010). Biologically, the child is defined as a human between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of a child, on the contrary, im plies that the child refers to a minor, younger than the age of maturity. Moreover, a child may be defined as someone who is under 18 years old especially when it comes to the law. For Pufall and Unsworth (2004), the child is an age-related concept which is the classificatory label given to the category of people who inhabit that temporal space or time of life called childhood. On the other hand, Gittins (1998) also pointed out that the child and the concept of childhood is a myth, a fiction, an adult construction. However, both have become symbolically central to our culture and psychologically crucial to our sense of self. Gittins (1998) further adds that the child exists in imagery that pervades our conscious and even in our unconscious minds; it is evident that images of a child are everywhere. Childhood, on the contrary, is believed to begin from the moment of conception (Van Bueren 1998). Pufall and Unsworth (2004) stressed that the term childhood embraces the temporality of t he developmental aspects of children’s lives. Gittins (1998) emphasized that individuals’ memories of their own childhoods inform their ideas regarding who they think they are, who they think they once were, what they believe children are and therefore, what they believe a child and the concept of childhood should be. Mash and Wolfe (2010) recognize children as persons with a value independent of any other purpose. Each and every person consequently carries their own, usually well-hidden and frequently denied, emotional and irrational baggage relating to their own subjective experiences of having once been a child (Gittins 1998). On the contrary, according to Kozier et al (2004) if a child grew up in a family whose members appreciate, respect and cherish each other are likely to feel good about himself when he becomes an adult. Childhood, however, has its pessimistic views and disapproving constructions. One example is the Puritan Discourse of childhood that focuses on the belief of inherent wickedness (Kassem 2010). Kassem (2010) further suggests that the proponents of this view hold a construction of childhood as uncivilized. The idea of childhood is also reflected on two discourses that strengthen contemporary understandings of childhood: the Romantic discourse or the optimistic view of childhood and the discourse of tabula rasa or blank slate. Kehily (2004) cited that the Romantic disc

Can India Become a Superpower Essay Example for Free

Can India Become a Superpower Essay Can India become a Superpower? The question is common and comes in evey mind, the topic is everlasting and in limeline. For being a superpower a country must have to solve his external and internal conflicts,its true that no country an become a superpower if ts not a developed one and india has yet to devlope andcan be said as an emerging power. Walking on this path is not so smooth you will find thorns that make you lame and sometimes huge rocks are ready to crush you so as India is facing it in this present senario (courption and repeatedly millitant attacks). India: A brief discription India so called as democratic country struggling to become a developed country has got a vast heritage. The overall population of India is 1.2 billion in 2013 and according to survey it will be going to become 1.4 billion in 2025 and in 2050 it will become 1.6 billion. Putting some light on political arena, Indian constitution has parliamentary system, multiparty system, liberal and conservatives. But it doesnt matter what rights we have there in our constitution because all are violated either by us or by governmennt, cant blame on a particular society or league of people. Now, the question comes, why it is not so easy to become a superpower, even we have proved ourself in every section of development? It is not so significant either you have taken your first steps in every section of development but it mainly depends on the factors that converts a country from developing to a developed country. Historical mistakes India has suffered a lot and yet it is suffering from illness, in historical time illness was that we were always being ruptured by foreign invaders Mughals, Englishmen, Portugese etc. The reason was our weakness because at that time trading were made on a large scale and to fullfill our needs manual manufacturing starts declining and industrial revolution take place which was the father of modern history and guess who was the mother none other than renissance that is re birth. Re birth of rationalism so the people of India were divided in many parts and didnt accept this change, now we are facing a big problem as at that time we belive in rituals not on reasons. The reason was, we were not united and till now we are facing the same problem of unity. Internal conflicts As disscused above the first problem we face is Being a united nation but not a united one that is, we say that India is a secular country, every one can follow his/her religion and yes we are enjoying it alot but somehow religion has divided us. The best example, RESERVATION, it is boldly mark because the worst thing to face and to fight, its quite similar to a railway reservation, for that you have to wait for your call, but it never comes because the middle man has reserved all the tickets for journey, here the middle man are bureaucrats. And on other hand the politicians are using it as a weapon to fill their vote banks, the manner, is giving reservation on the bases of religion and earning votes according to it. They alone cant be blame because its we who support them for our own cause. Not only reservation there are many problems like Hindu Muslim conflict, telangana case, diffrent language (yes its also a cause for not being united) etc are also responsible and wrtting on this will take a lot pages and suffcient time. External conflicts India is surrounded by lot many neighbours like Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Bangladesh, Afganistan and Sri Lanka. India Has bilatreal relation with all its neighbours and trying to maintain it but if we talk about Pakistan one of the oldest enemy of India causing a lot trouble supported by China. Recently there was a heavy load of firing in Poonch, Kashmir after PAK elects its Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who promised to solve problems with India regarding there relation. If we recall our memory Sri Lanka used to say that the LTTE is supported by India to break them. So its quite clear even though we have bilateral relation with our neighbours, we are facing a sense of rebel from there side. Terrorism One of the most significant problem faced by India which is restraining it to become a super power. The word terrorism always recall us Kargil war(1999), 26/11 mumbai attack, Dantewada tragedy and recently the attack on congressmen, not only this a lot many more attacks we have faced. PAK millitants has threaten so called heaven Kashmir anad on eastern side and central part Naxalites responsible for killing innocent people. Naxalites are considerd as terrorist organisation after Unlawfull Activites (Prevention) Act 1967 and also a most dangerous internal threat. Terrorism does not posses any shape, size, face, religion or community it is only to threaten people with gun power. Courption Last but not the least courption one of the major threat which is rotening our admistrative system from inside getting us weak and if we are weak than its only a dream to become a superpower. It adversly effects our economy. No particular person is responsible for it we all are responsible for it. All those scam like 2g colgate and CWG has an immense effect on our GDP rate,4.7% fourth quatqer of 2013 from 6.2% according to 2011-12 fiscal, which make us to count on Hindu rate of growth that is slow rate of growt. The above mention are some of the significant cause apart from others, which are blocking India to become a superpower. No doubt its true that after independence we have raised ourself to a better level in the feild of science, tourism, culture etc, but the goal is far away to achive and presently India is emerging as a superpower.

Factors Driving Hiv Aids Epidemic Health And Social Care Essay

Factors Driving Hiv Aids Epidemic Health And Social Care Essay This report aims to understand social and behavioral factors driving the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Inequalities fuel the spread of HIV/ AIDS on many different levels such as poverty, gender, education and health. Poor and vulnerable populations are most at risk from HIV/AIDS whereas wealthy countries that can afford access to anti retro viral drugs , have functioning health care systems and education policies in place; have a significantly lower rate of infection. The stigma surrounding HIV compounds these effects and the vulnerable remain marginalized and most at risk. The Nature of HIV/AIDS: A Global Pandemic: HIV/AIDS is a new epidemic in our history There currently is no cure and no vaccine for HIV/AIDS. HIV is transmissible through sexual contact both homosexual and heterosexual, injecting drug users and other rare occurrences of transmission such as blood transfusions. HIV has a long period of infection and between infection and illness. The world wide population of people living with HIV in 2008 was 33.4 million, with 31.3 million being adults, 15.7 million being female and 2.1 million being children under 15 years of age. In 2008, 2.7 million people were newly infected with HIV; 2.0 million people died from AIDS related illnesses and today it remains one of the leading causes of death globally. There is large variation between countries and regions of HIV/AIDS prevalence and according to epidemiological patterns; the disease is evolving with changing epidemic patterns in different regions globally. In Australia at the end of 2008 18,000 people were living with HIV. The transmission of HIV in Australia is primarily through sexual contact between homosexual men however the infection has also been transmitted through heterosexual contact and injecting drug users. In Thailand the population living with HIV/AIDS is 610,000, HIV/AIDS is primarily transmitted through heterosexual contact, injecting drug users and sex workers. In Thailand more than 1 in 100 adults of a population of 65 million is infected with HIV, and AIDS has become a leading cause of death. Sub-Saharan Africa is the most heavily affected HIV/AIDS area, in 2008 two thirds (67%) of the HIV/AIDS infected population worldwide remained in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa in total has 22.4 million people living with HIV/AIDS. Heterosexual exposure is the primary mode of transmission of HIV with females being more heavily affected by HIV. In the year 2008 there were 1.4 million AIDS related deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Life Course of HIV/AIDS Infection: The greatest challenge facing developing countries is the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the realization that it threatens not only human life but decades of development (Polgar, 2002). The disease attacks and destroys families and communities that place heavy financial burden on the economy (World Health Organization, 2010). Globally, the most vulnerable are the poor, women and young girls, prostitutes, injecting drug users and children of infected mothers. Dependent upon the mode of transmission, location and availability of treatment, the survival rate is between 1 to 11 years. A reduction of 80% of the disease has been achieved with treatments such as the anti-retroviral drugs, but the long term effects can cause secondary infections and malignancies that are associated with a compromised immune system. The increased spread of HIV/AIDS has affected social networks by conflict and displacement. Biologically women are more susceptible to contracting HIV than males due to hormonal changes, v aginal microbial ecology and physiology, and a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (Quinn Overbaugh, 2005). The individual determinants of female vulnerability to HIV include gender inequity, poverty, cultural and sexual expectations, violence and lack of education. A large majority of older people that are living in low or middle-income countries can account for 70% of the ageing population worldwide (World Health Organisation, 2010) The opportunity to build the infrastructure necessary to address this demographic trend is much briefer because population ageing is occurring faster in countries, such as South Africa. There is a high risk of people falling into poverty in older age that may increase with reduction of family size. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS and the high mortality rate among adults has increased in numbers and skipped whole generations. Increasing numbers of the younger generation have died in the AIDS epidemic, leaving the surviving adults to take on the responsibility in caring for the sick, especially the poorer families (Stover et al, 2002 pp.73-77) The economic affects of HIV/AIDS at the Micro and Macro Levels: Developing countries bear the burden of the cost of HIV/AIDS. HIV not only negatively impacts households but also business and the pool of available workers. The result is a reversal of development and the United Nations (2007) argue that HIV/AIDS is the single most significant factor in this. (United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report, 2007). The damage that the epidemic has done to the economy, which, in turn, has made it more difficult for countries to respond to the crisis illustrates this negative development. Those who contract the disease are generally young and come from the most productive age group in society (18-40 year olds). The income of the family is eroded, not only due to the loss of the sick members income, but also because other family members stop working to care for their ill family members (Aus.Aid, 2001). Any savings a family has is soon eaten away by increased health related costs and the decreased income. The children are then forced into work and education is abandoned resulting in a cycle of poverty and disease that it is difficult, if not impossible to get out of. This results in a knock on effect in the broader community by reduced spending and lower demand for goods, which in turn may affect business output and the entire countries economic growth (Dhai, 2008). HIV/AIDS also affects the labour force. As the virus devastates an entire generation of people, skilled and experienced workers are lost, resulting in decreased productivity and reduced business prosperity. Amongst those who are able to work, productivity is likely to decline as a result of HIV-related illness. This in turn can affect the international competitiveness of a country and, foreign investment resulting in new opportunities, will go elsewhere. The World Bank identifies determinants for economic growth and HIV has undermined some of the most important; social capital, human capital and household savings (Bonnel, 2000). Falling tax revenue means decreased government revenue. This, combined with pressure to spend on health care to respond to the expanding epidemic often results in negative national growth. Thus, in countries that can least afford it HIV/AIDS has reduced economic growth and increased poverty (Bor, 2007). Poverty in turn, fuels the spread of the disease. Discrimination and Stigma of HIV/AIDS: In recent years there has been increasing recognition of the importance of analyzing the social and environmental aspects surrounding individuals living with HIV/AIDS. One social aspect in particular that has received a lot of interest within research is HIV/AIDS related stigma and discrimination. It is widely recognized that the negative social responses to this epidemic can have an extremely negative impact on the lives of people living with the disease (Parker and Aggleton, 2003). One person to voice the extensive impact of stigma and discrimination in relation to HIV/AIDS was Jonathan Mann, the founding director of the world health organizations former global program on aids. Mann distinguished between 3 different phases of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in any community. The first being the epidemic of HIV/AIDS infection, secondly HIV/AIDS itself as a disease and thirdly, the epidemic of social, cultural, economic and political responses to the disease which, he stated , was characterize d in a large part by extremely high levels of stigma, discrimination and collective denial. He claimed this to be as central to the global AIDS challenge as the disease itself (Parker Aggleton, 2003). Stigma and discrimination are part of complex systems of beliefs that people have relating to illness and disease and, can be caused by a number of factors including a lack of knowledge about the disease, and fear of contamination. It can also derive from other existing inequalities relating to race, gender, class and sexuality (Parker Aggleton, 2003 ; Anderson, Elam, Gerver, Solarin, Fenton Easterbrook, 2008) Stigma and discrimination cause numerous social inequalities and reinforce negative stereotypes which can lead to status loss and unequal outcomes for those with the disease (Castro Farmer, 2005). Stigma and discrimination are also associated with increased levels of anxiety, depressive symptoms, engaging in avoidant coping strategies, loneliness and suicidal ideation (Courte nay-Quirk, Wolitski, Parsons, Gomez Seropositive Urban mens study team, 2006). The Global Challenges of HIV/AIDS and the Living Environment: The course of HIV/AIDS can vary considerably among individuals with the disease, and when analyzing these differences a number of factors should be taken into account. It is important to not only reflect on the behavior and actions of the individual, but to also to consider the environmental factors surrounding them as they can have a significant effect on the likelihood of individuals seeking and receiving appropriate care. The challenges to receiving care can vary greatly depending on a large number of factors including, but not limited to, location, gender, culture and socio-economic status. However, there are a number of environmental factors that appear to have the greatest effect on the course of the disease. A study named the HIV aware/not in care project (cited in Nichols, Tchounwou, Mena Sarpong, 2009) identified a number of these Environmental barriers to productive living and care. These barriers included difficulty in receiving care, negative provider patient relationshi ps, lack of family support, funding for care and societal attitudes toward HIV/aids. A similar study named the effects of environmental factors on persons living with HIV/AIDS. Nichols et al.(2009); found that the environmental factors that had the most negative effect on patients living with HIV/AIDS were transportation, surroundings, government policies, attitudes and the natural environment. Both studies demonstrated that if these environmental factors are addressed, there negative effect is reduced which often improves the lives of people living with HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS and Social Justice : Social justice is quite simply defined as being the right to fairness and reasonableness, especially with the way people are treated or how decisions regarding their health are made. Every human being has a right to good health. To remove this right is an act of social injustice (Gostin Powers, 2006). In western countries, such as Australia, anti-retroviral drugs are available on the PBS for the treatment of HIV. How can this be fair, when there are countries with millions of people suffering from HIV/AIDS and, who, do not have access to these life changing drugs. Out of 6 million people worldwide that require anti-retroviral drugs, only 8% are receiving them (Galvao, 2005). This is highlighted by the research showing that in sixty five countries throughout the world, that are of low or middle income, with a combined population of four billion people, patenting is very rare and there are limited drugs available, one of which is the anti-retroviral drugs needed for treatment of HIV/A IDS (Attaran, 2004). This, quite simply, is a prime example of the drug manufacturers being concerned only for their profit, not for the health of the people that this drug would benefit. The universal declaration of human rights, as stated in (Heywood, 2010) declares that a standard of living that is adequate for the health and well being of oneself, which includes basic housing, food and treatment to medical care, is a right that should be available to everyone, regardless of geographic location. HIV/AIDS and the Health Care System: Many factors contribute to the rate of clinical progression of HIV /AIDS and that can include age, gender, cultural beliefs, discrimination and stigma, host susceptibility, immunity, co-infections and access to appropriate healthcare. Globally, tuberculosis is the largest co-infection health concern and can be directly cause by HIV/AIDS. The morbidity rate is extremely high in developing countries and approximately a third of all HIV- positive individuals will develop tuberculosis before they die. The overlap between the epidemiology of HIV and tuberculosis has put a huge burden on the health systems especially in Africa. A reduction of both these infections can only be achieved by locating and screening cases, reducing reactivation and transmission of tuberculosis and reducing HIV transmission (Godfrey-Faussett Ayles, 2003). Although there has been a substantial improvement to healthcare, some nurses believe there is still a degree of risk when caring for those infected with the AIDS virus. Some of the personal and social factors that may contribute to this are the associated stigma of the disease, attitudes of the health professionals and community, acquired AIDS knowledge and personal safety (Preston Esther M. Forti, 2000). Available healthcare, increased life expectancy and better health outcomes are determined by social environments and life style behaviours. The necessary improvements can only be made by health development and simple policy changes. These changes, such as redistribution of income, targeting of taxation systems and implementing social programs focus towards primary care as well as community participation (Peters Garces, 2009). Approaches to prevention and the spread of HIV can be influenced by the social, cultural and religious beliefs in a country. The majority of people living wi th HIV/AIDS in the poorer countries seek international advocacy to assist financially and provide access to the antiretroviral drugs. By assisting partner countries, the Australian Government has implemented strategies to significantly reduce and reverse the spread of HIV and AIDS (Meier, 2007). DISCUSSION: For the past decade women have born the brunt of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In Africa women constitute 60% those infected with AIDS. In many societies women have a lower social and economic standing than men simply because they are women. In Africa this makes women more at risk of being infected with HIV, and then HIV causes women to fall deeper into poverty in a terrible cycle. Women often lack the social and economic power to insist on practising safe-sex leaving them vulnerable to HIV transmission from their sexual partners. In comparison it is interesting to note that in Thailand and Cambodia, as a result of education programs, condom use amongst sex workers has risen to 90% and these behavioural changes have had a positive impact on the spread of the disease. In Australia, HIV/AIDS has had little impact on the female population and remains predominately confined to the gay community and intravenous drug users . Women have a higher social standing in the community, are able to demand safe sex practices with partners and are educated, as a result of government programs about the virus. As a result the infection rate amongst Australian women is relatively low with 18,000 people infected but only 1200 of those are women . (un.aids.org, 2008). This comparison shows how beneficial education programs can be, even in countries where women struggle to achieve a higher social and economic standing and how raising the standing of women will assist in the shrinking of the spread of the disease. Women in developing countries also bear the burden of care that results from the virus. Often they are infected with the virus by their sexual partners and also are left to provide for the household if the male dies. This leaves women in developing countries trapped in a vicious cycle. The poverty they face leaves them vulnerable and often in a position where they are unable to demand safe sex practices. Removing the stigma associated with HIV enables women to seek medical care and the life prolonging drugs that allow them to remain the sole provider and carer for the family. The disease is not just about health, Its also about education. Education is an agent of change bringing economic independence to both males and females. Education is seen as a basic human right but many people in developing countries lack access to even basic literacy and numeracy skills. In many societies sex is a difficult subject to address and it needs to be openly and publicly discussed to educate vulnerable groups about minimising the risk of transmission and remove some of the stigma that surrounds HIV. In Australia, public health education campaigns were used early in the diseases lifespan to educate the population about the safe sex message and methods of transmission. As a result of these campaigns a public discourse was opened, sex became a more acceptable topic of discussion and some of the stigma surrounding the disease was removed. The use of condoms became socially acceptable and widely demanded. Thailand, too, tackled these difficult social issues and the results are evident in the decline of new infection rates, especially amongst women. However, African nations were and are slow to act. Condom use remains a difficult topic to address; this is compounded by many religious groups who refuse to advocate for condom use. Whilst developed countries are better able to fund these campaigns and provide free condoms; the social and economic cost to Africa and other developing nations may have been greatly reduced if action in this area was swift. Embroiled in gender and education is poverty. Poverty restricts access to health care, education and economic independence. Poverty prevents governments taking effective action on a national level, restricts health care access on a community level and impacts on the everyday lives of those living with the disease. By addressing poverty in communities most at risk, people will remain in their communities and not travel away for work and bring the disease back. It would be hoped this lessens the spread of HIV. Increased access to health care allows those already living with HIV to access drugs and those at risk of the disease to become educated on paths of transmission. We have discussed how wealthy nations have minimised the rate of infection through education and public health campaigns but these rely on the funds being available to initiate such programs. Universal access to life saving drugs is a concept that is widely discussed in relation to HIV/AIDS and whilst this would undoubtedly be beneficial it requires political and business leaders to show goodwill. Yet it would also bring many challenges; how would these drugs be distributed? In many countries health care workers are dying of HIV and health care systems and distribution networks are almost non existent. Who would educate the general public about the treatments and monitor compliance? In countries like Papua New Guinea, the mountainous terrain and numerous languages add another barrier to effective education and distribution of treatments. At some point since HIV/AIDS was first identified it stopped being solely a health issue and became an issue of inequality. Inequalities between developed and developing countries mean that the disease has hit hardest where the people can least afford it. Gender inequalities have meant that women find themselves in a position that leaves them vulnerable to being infected. Economic inequalities make access to drugs difficult . Poverty results from the disease and also fuels the disease. Lack of access to education leaves people unable to break free of the poverty cycle and helps fuel the stigma that surrounds the disease. Lack of political will and action has condemned millions of people to a cycle of disease and poverty. Greed on behalf of large pharmaceutical companies has denied millions of people life improving drugs. Never before has an illness affected entire countries from the poorest person to the most powerful and every facet of that country from the economic system, through to the health care and education systems. HIV/AIDS is not just an illness, it is also socially determined and as such a vaccine or a cure is only part of the required solution.

Holens Breakdown :: essays papers

Holens Breakdown â€Å"This fall I think you’re riding for- it’s a special kind of fall, a horrible kind. The man falling isn’t permitted to feel or hear himself hit the bottom. He just keeps falling and falling. The whole arrangement’s designed for men who, at some time or other in their lives, were looking for something their own environment couldn’t supply them with. So they gave up looking. They gave it up before they ever really even got started.† Holden Caulfield’s fall to psychological breakdown begins with his brother Allie’s death. To Holden, Allie represents everything that was good in this world. When Allie is first described, Holden only says great things about him. â€Å"You’d have liked him... He was terrifically intelegent... He was the nicest (member of the family).† Therefore when Allie dies, the good things in his world disappears. After this first major event, Holden gradually realizes that he is powerless to change the evil and corrupt world that he lives in. Holden is looking for something that his own environment couldn’t supply him, the only thing that he ever liked, Allie. â€Å"Just because somebody’s dead, you don’t just stop liking them, for God’s sake- especially if they were about a thousand times nicer than the people you know that’re alive and all.† Another early event in Holden’s life is the death of James Castle. Holden sees himself as James in many ways. James would not take back what he said about a conceited boy, and jumped out of the window before he would do something that he did not believe in. Holden is the same in many ways. He refuses to accept the fact that the world is evil, and does everything in his power to change it. â€Å"The mark of an immature man is that he wants to die nobly for a cause, while the mark of a mature one is that humbly for one.† Another similarity between them both is that James was wearing Holden’s sweater when he fell out of the window. As he saw James lying on the ground, Holden sees a part of himself die with him. The part that dies is the part that believes in the goodness of people and the world. Holden’s tendency to get kicked out of schools is both a reason and effect of